Understanding Hyaluronic Acid
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a glycosaminoglycan found naturally in the body’s connective tissues, with the highest concentrations in the skin, eyes, and joints. Its primary function is to retain water to keep tissues well lubricated and moist. According to the Cleveland Clinic, one gram of hyaluronic acid can hold up to six liters of water, which is key to its incredible hydrating properties (Cleveland Clinic).

Therapeutic Uses of Hyaluronic Acid
Medical Applications
Ophthalmic Surgery: HA is commonly used in procedures such as cataract removal and corneal transplantation to facilitate healing and lubricate the eye (FDA).
Dermatology and Joint Disorders: It is effective in managing symptoms of osteoarthritis and has applications in topical treatments for skin wounds and disorders.
Oral Mucositis Treatment: HA can help soothe the inflammation and pain associated with this condition, often a side effect of cancer treatments.
Skincare Benefits
Anti-Aging Properties
Research indicates that HA can significantly diminish the signs of aging. A study published in the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology found that hyaluronic acid fillers are effective in reducing the appearance of wrinkles for up to 12 months (Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology).

Hydration and Elasticity
HA enhances skin hydration and elasticity by drawing moisture from the environment into the skin. This is particularly beneficial in climates where the air is dry.

Supplements for Skin Health
Oral hyaluronic acid supplements can improve skin moisture and help reduce dryness. According to a 2014 study published in the Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, participants taking 120-240 mg of HA daily for at least one month reported enhanced skin hydration and elasticity (Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine).

Hyaluronic Acid in Skincare Products
Topical Applications
Serums and Creams: These are designed to deliver deep hydration to help smooth fine lines and make the skin appear more supple.
Dermal Fillers: HA fillers are used to restore lost volume and smooth out wrinkles, particularly around the mouth and cheeks.
Innovative Treatments
Hyaluronic Acid Peels: These treatments involve applying a solution containing HA to the skin, which is then left to dry and later peeled off, revealing a more hydrated and smooth complexion.
Expert Advice
While hyaluronic acid is generally safe and beneficial, it is crucial to consult with a skincare professional before starting any new treatment. Overuse or incorrect application can lead to unwanted effects such as skin dryness or irritation. It is recommended to seek advice from a qualified dermatologist, especially when considering procedures like fillers or high-concentration peels (Best Dermatologists in Dubai).

Conclusion
Hyaluronic acid is a powerhouse ingredient for maintaining skin hydration and elasticity, making it a valuable addition to skincare routines. Whether used in medical settings or cosmetic products, its benefits in promoting a healthier, more youthful complexion are well-supported by scientific research. Always ensure to use HA-containing products according to professional guidelines to achieve the best results.

The main function of the immune system is to defend the host against pathogens and toxins. The cells of the immune system remain as individual cells instead of forming organs. These immune cells are distributed throughout the body. However, these cells of the immune system work in a cooperative manner to accomplish their tasks to the human body. The unique feature of the immune system is that it can recognize its own molecules from foreign molecules. Generally, the immune response involves many key stages: pathogen recognition, activation and initiation, regulation, and the production of immune memory. The vertebrate immune system consists of two basic branches: Innate and adaptive immunity. Although these immunities have different effects, they usually work together to fight infections.

What is innate immunity?

The innate immune system, also called the non-specific immune system, is part of the immune system and provides the first line of defense against infection. The molecules and receptors of the immune system provide extensive protection. In fact, it is the natural immunity of all animals and plants. It produces a variety of molecules and can identify almost any invading pathogen.

Basically, the first response is slow and highly specific to invading pathogens. However, the response to the second attack was more rapid, which is the basis of the vaccine. The innate immune system includes different cells, such as eosinophils, monocytes, macrophages, natural killer cells, tor-like receptors (TLR), and a series of soluble mediators, such as the complement system.

What is adaptive immunity?

The adaptive or specific immune system mainly attacks specific invaders. It is composed of highly specialized cells, which are called thymus-derived T lymphocytes and bone marrow-derived B lymphocytes. These cells can recognize different foreign antigens in a very precise way, and have the ability to generate immune memory, so that they can recognize previously encountered pathogens.

There are two types of adaptive immunity: humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Antibody molecules secreted by B lymphocytes can neutralize extracellular pathogens and mediate humoral immunity, while T lymphocytes can clear infected cells and help other immune responses, thereby mediating cellular immunity.

What are the similarities between innate and adaptive immunity?

Innate immunity and adaptive immunity are two types of immune systems that exist in our body.

Both types of immune systems can fight pathogens and protect our bodies.

What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

The main difference between innate immunity and adaptive immunity is that innate immunity is a rapid immune response that provides the first line of immune defense against infection, while adaptive immunity is a slow immune response mediated by T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. In addition, innate immunity is present at birth, while adaptive immunity is formed after exposure to antigens.

In addition, innate immunity is non-specific and can act on a variety of pathogens, while adaptive immunity is highly specific. Likewise, another important difference between innate immunity and adaptive immunity is their composition. Innate immunity includes physical and chemical barriers, phagocytosis of white blood cells, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and plasma proteins, while adaptive immunity includes T and B lymphocytes.

Moreover, the innate immune response is faster, while the adaptive immune response is slower. Moreover, another difference between innate immunity and adaptive immunity is that innate immunity cannot develop immune memory, while adaptive immunity can develop immune memory against specific antigens.

Summary

Innate immunity and adaptive immunity are the two main types of immunity in the human body. Innate immunity provides the first line of defense against infection in a non-specific manner. Although innate immunity is non-specific, it is very fast. In contrast, adaptive immunity can provide slow specific immunity. It is activated after exposure to antigen. Moreover, adaptive immunity can establish immune memory against antigens.

The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 causes coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19) and is now rampant worldwide. Vaccines are an essential countermeasure urgently needed to control a pandemic. There is no human vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, but approximately 120 vaccine candidates are under development.

SARS-CoV-2 and two other closely related highly pathogenic viruses, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, belong to the genus Betacoronavirus in the family Coronaviridae. SARS-CoV-2 has a sense, single-stranded RNA genome of 30 kb in size. Its nucleocapsid protein (N) and outer membrane composed of membrane protein (M), envelope protein (E), and spike protein (S) coat its genome.

Like SARS-CoV, the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 binds to their common receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), via a receptor-binding domain (RBD), mediating viral entry into host cells. Prior to this, scientists have confirmed that the RBDs of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV contain major conformation-dependent neutralizing epitopes and are able to elicit potent neutralizing antibodies in immunized animals, so they are promising vaccine development targets.

In July 2020, researchers from the Duke University Human Vaccine Institute, Los Alamos National Laboratory, La Jolla Institute of Immunology, the University of Washington, Harvard University, and the University of Sheffield, UK, found that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S protein) mutation D614G improved the ability of this virus to infect human cells and helped it become the dominant strain spreading in the world today (Cell, 2020, Fig. doi:10.1016/j.cell .2020.06.043). This SARS-CoV-2 carrying the D614G mutation (Hereafter referred to as D614G variant, or D614G virus variant) rapidly becomes the dominant strain shortly after its first appearance. However, the impact of this mutation on virus transmission and vaccine efficacy remains to be determined.

In September 2020, researchers from the University of Massachusetts Medical School, Harvard University, Thermo Fisher Scientific, and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals in the United States found that the D614G variant was more infectious than its ancestral virus on human pneumocytes, colonocytes, and cells that were allowed to be infected by this virus by ectopic expression of human ACE2 or ACE2 homologs from various mammals (including Chinese chrysanthemum and Malayan pangolin) (Cell, 2020, Fig. doi:10.1016/j.cell .2020.09.032). Evaluation of the S protein trimer by cryo-electron microscopy showed that D614G disrupts the contact between the protomer of the S protein and shifts the conformation of the S protein to a state that is able to bind ACE2, which is thought to be a pathway for the fusion of viral particles with target cell membranes. Consistent with this more open conformation, the neutralizing potency of antibodies targeting the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the S protein was not diminished.

Today, in a new study, researchers from the University of Texas in the United States genetically engineered the SARS-CoV-2 strain USA-WA1/2020 to carry the D614G mutation and described its effects. They found that D614G enhanced replication in human lung epithelial cells and primary human airway tissue by increasing the infectivity of this strain. The relevant findings were recently published in Nature, and the paper was entitled “Spike mutation D614G alters SARS-CoV-2 fitness”.

Hamsters infected with the G614 variant produce higher infectious virus in nasal washes and trachea rather than in the lungs, which confirms previous clinical evidence that the D614G mutation increases viral load in the upper respiratory tract of COVID-19 patients and may increase transmission.

Sera from hamsters infected with the D614 variant neutralized G614 variants modestly more than D614 variants, suggesting that (i) this mutation may not diminish the ability of the vaccine to protect against COVID-19 in clinical trials and (ii) therapeutic antibody testing should be performed against transmitted G614 variants. Combined with clinical findings, this study highlights the importance of this mutation in virus transmission, vaccine efficacy, and antibody therapy.

It is FDA approved only as an orphan drug and is prescribed for the treatment of circadian sleep disorders in blind people with no light perception.

Melatonin hormone is naturally produced in the human body. It works to help the body to maintain its sleep cycle, also known as the biological clock. On average, a human work for approx. 16 hours and sleep for about 8 hours a day. This body cycle is controlled by a hormone called melatonin.

Here it is advisable that melatonin supplements should be taken as per your doctor’s advice or guidance. If you are taking melatonin pill or supplements to help you with sleep disturbances, take it about half an hour before bedtime. This is mainly because the drug takes some time to make effect.

While supplementation can work wonders for some individuals, it may not work effectively for others. In this case, it is best to seek the advice of a doctor. Melatonin is also useful in the prevention and treatment of other health problems like cancer.

The most common side effects of melatonin include frequent headaches and an altered sleep pattern. Although a rare, an allergic reaction may occur resulting in hives and itchy skin rashes, in which case a doctor should be consulted immediately.

The information given here is based on salt. Its side effects and uses may vary from person to person.

Melatonin Side Effects

Some common melatonin side effects may include —

Nausea
Dizziness
Headaches
Pruritus
Diarrhea
Abnormal dreams
Irritability
Nervousness
Sleepiness
Increased weight
Tiredness
Restlessness
Anxiety
Migraine
Lethargy
Psychomotor hyperactivity
Dizziness
Hypertension
Abdominal pain
Mood swings
Heart burn
Mouth ulcers
Dry mouth
Hyperbilirubinemia
Dermatitis
Night sweats
Rashes and dry skin
Pain in the extremities
Symptoms of menopause
Chest pain
Glycosuria (sugar in the urine)
Proteinuria (protein in the urine)
Abnormal liver function tests
Aggression and feeling hungover
Increased levels of potassium in the blood
An overdose of melatonin supplements may cause following side effects —

Anxiety
Joint pain
A headache
An upset stomach
Diarrhea
Irritability
Interactions

Melatonin may interact with other drugs —

Teriflunomide
Fluvoxamine
Warfarin
Ifosfamide
Lorazepam
Clonazepam
Phenobarbital
Zolpidem
Caffeine
Precautions

Tell your doctor if you have diseases; especially —

Liver disease
Glaucoma
Depression
Diabetes
Low or high blood pressure
Epilepsy or seizures
An autoimmune condition
Taking a blood thinners
Using other sedatives
Blood clotting disorder
It is advisable not to take melatonin if you are pregnant. It may cause many birth-defects in newborn baby. Ask your doctor before taking melatonin supplements if you are pregnant.

It is not clear if it is safe during breastfeeding. It may pass into breast milk. Consult your doctor if you’re breast-feeding.

Additional Tips

It is better to use foods rich in melatonin. Pistachios are the richest source of melatonin. Other foods that contain melatonin in plenty may include —

Fish
Eggs
Grapes
Mushrooms
Tomatoes
Peppers
Strawberries
Tart cherries
Avoid taking beverages such as coffee or tea in the night as they may cause sleep disturbances.